Onpoint Mobile Deposit Funds Availability, Graal Era Upload, Tema Sul Tradimento Di Un Segreto Yahoo, Articles R

It positively correlates with increased cortical thickness in older individuals. The earliest mentions of synesthesia were recorded by 19th-century scientist Francis Galton, although research would not begin in earnest until the late 20th century. Friday for instance is brown, when F is green and Thursday is maroon, when T is indigoI see the days of the week as though theyre on a ladder, with Saturday and Sunday as the top two steps Ive heard that some others see this as well!. Synesthesia can be associative, so senses are connected and associated in a persons mind, or projective, when the images and colors are projected into reality. Auditory sensation elicited visual sensations How Viagra became a new 'tool' for young men, Ankylosing Spondylitis Pain: Fact or Fiction, Cardiovascular health: Insomnia linked to greater risk of heart attack. Everyday fantasia: The world of synesthesia - apa.org Nigerian Abiola Ogunsanwo has started a new synesthesia society, making history for under-represented neuro-outliers in Africa. Teachers and others should be aware of the condition, however, so they dont dismiss synesthetes descriptions of the world. Do synesthetes hold the key to the autism "puzzle"? Jean has an intense fear of alligators, including large stuffed alligators and often discusses the topic. The most common form of synesthesia, researchers believe, is colored hearing: sounds, music or voices seen as colors. In what section of the balance sheet should a note receivable be listed if its term is 909090 days? From what type of insomnia does Dora suffer? The hippocampus plays an essential role in ____. You notice that revenues are increasing rapidly and that income is at an all-time high. In humans, zygote is the correct term for a developing organism during which period of time? transfer sound energy to the fluid of the inner ear. According to the excerpt, what is one of the major problems in detecting Alzheimer's Disease? Research reveals that childhood experience with an alphabet toy can have long-term effects on the manifestation of synesthetic experiences. Which of the following best describes the way it was experienced by Cytowic's friend? Tastes elicited a tactile sensation in the hands. Everyday fantasia: The world of synesthesia Corrections? Similar to the pairs found in other types of synesthesia, the pairings in chromesthesia are consistent for each synesthete but are not automatically the same for another synesthete with chromesthesia. Although such results demonstrate that synesthesia is automatic, in the sense that they cannot turn off their synesthesic experience even when it interferes with a task, these results do not reveal whether synesthetic colors are perceptions or memories. It's surprisingly common. Diaz Company issued $180,000 face value of bonds on January 1, 2016. You'll get a detailed solution from a subject matter expert that helps you learn core concepts. For lexical synesthetes, these words take on unique colors. All rights reserved. From an evolutionary perspective, there is no reason for it not to persist in the population since it does no harm. on February 13, 2022 in The Fallible Mind. Sensation and perception are the underlying processes operating in visual illusions. 3. risky behaviors: alcohol, drugs, reckless driving, sex, increased suicide risk, Early adulthood: body continues to grow and strengthen until the end of this stage The causes of synesthesia also remain unknown. All Rights Reserved. This review summarizes and reflects . JSTOR, the JSTOR logo, and ITHAKA are registered trademarks of ITHAKA. And studies of synesthesia can help explain how the brain and sensory system work. Such synesthetic colors are not elicited by meaning, because 2 may be orange but two is blue and 7 may be red but seven is green. A Perceptual Oddity Can Help Explain Synesthetic Experiences, A Striking Link Between Vitamin D Levels and Omicron. When scientists artificially alter recordings of speech to resemble regular, repeating sine waves, people typically interpret this as ____. - ON AVERAGE: as we age we become more agreeable, dependable and accepting of life, Climacteric: period between 45-60 yrs when women lose their capacity to sexually reproduce and men's capacity to reproduce declines, Menopause: women: Cessation of ovulation and menstruation, Men: decline in sperm cells, Both sexes have somewhat decreased sex drive, attachment & deprivation study with monkeys, need contact not just food, research shows that touching and massaging infants leads to significant physical and emotional benefits, Jean Piaget's stage theories of development, all children go through four cognitive stages at approximately the same age regardless of what culture in which they live, birth - 2 years, infants develop a sense of the world through their senses and motor activity. When you read a newspaper or listen to someone speaking do you see a rainbow of colors? For this reason, in all the subject reads or hears, each letter or number is either viewed as physically written in a specific colour (in so-called projector synesthetes) or visualized as a colour in the mind (in associator synesthetes). Most synesthetes report that they see such sounds internally, in "the mind's eye." . Synesthesia remains an area of active research, because of both its own uncomprehended nature and its neurophysiological similarity to more detrimental conditions, such as autism and schizophrenia. Knowledge awaits. What does Cytowic's friend say that suggests this isn't the case? It is only since the late 1990s that synesthesia studies got serious. Describe the main properties of light waves and how they impact perception of colours. Our interviewee said that this happens to her, as well. Writer Vladimir Nabokov had it, and he called it color hearing.. What does this imply for the rest of us? It is difficult to say how many people actually experience synesthesia, mainly because there is very little research that has aimed to address this question. If your answer to these is yes, you may have a wonderful condition known as synesthesia, which you share with many great artists, writers, and musicians. Most synesthetes report that they see such sounds internally, in "the mind's eye." Only a minority, like Day, see visions as if projected outside the body, usually within arm's reach. MNT is the registered trade mark of Healthline Media. Commercial vehicle operators have their daily amount of driving and waking hours monitored by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration. A certain color is constant for them with a certain number. Christine Mohr, Ph.D., and Domicele Jonauskaite, Ph.D. Do People With Synethesia Draw Out Expression in the Autistic? Old Medication, New Use: Can Prazosin Curb Drinking? Heather considers herself a "chocoholic." This diversity makes the task of generalizing the genetic basis of synesthesia almost impossible for researchers. What researchers have discovered, however, is that most synesthetes tend to associate high-pitched sounds with light, bright colors. Gen psych chap 4-7 Flashcards | Quizlet Get your fix of JSTOR Dailys best stories in your inbox each Thursday. What is the evidence that meditation may slow some aspects of aging? Abstract Synesthesia is a neurological disorder that has to do with the 'union of the senses.' The literature reveals that students with synesthesia are affected with various degrees of severity. [Color-graphemic synesthesia], the authors write, appears to emerge in early school years, where first major pressures to use graphemes [symbols and codes such as letters and numbers] are encountered, and then becomes cemented in later years., In fact, they say, for certain abstract inducers, such as graphemes, it is implausible that humans are born with synesthetic associations to these stimuli. Some studies have suggested that the condition is genetically inherited, which may explain why Nabokovs son had color-graphemic synesthesia, like both of his parents. And studies of synesthesia can help explain how the brain and sensory system work. 2-7 years, physical development includes improved small and large muscle control and coordination, emotional & social development includes full range of positive and negative emotions early childhood play behavior 2 years: solitary play which is by themselves and they don't like sharing What results would you expect when comparing participants with grapheme-color synesthesia against controls? Do you get confused about appointments because Tuesday and Thursday have the same color? So, A may trigger a vision of gray, and the number 5 may evoke white.. Unraveling the Genetics Behind Why Some People "See" Sound and "Hear In fact, several researchers have shown that synesthetes can perform better on certain tests of memory and intelligence. With the number of bilingual individuals increasing steadily, find out how bilingualism affects the brain and cognitive function. Can poor sleep impact your weight loss goals? Rather, its a fresh way of experiencing the world through a mixing of the senses that is unique to the individual. Now, reports Michael Price at Science, researchers have identified some of the genes that may be responsible for these unusual experiences. 2004-2023 Healthline Media UK Ltd, Brighton, UK, a Red Ventures Company. While nearly any sensory combination is possible in synesthesia, here are some of the most well-known ways it manifests: Many synesthetes have more than one type of synesthesia. 2. mood changes: shifty moods, extreme highs and lows Unfortunately, the methods used to combat lack of sleep may make the problem worse. These associations are also constant for synesthetes. Fred is studying vocabulary for his biomedical class while sitting in a busy coffee shop. O Visual stimuli elicited the sensation of a taste. According to a press release, synesthesia commonly. The final stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model refers to the location of permanent memories. low-risk and high-risk individuals; persuasion. Some wonder if people with synesthesia are just being metaphorical, as many people use metaphors that cross sensory modalities. Theres no clinical diagnosis for synesthesia, but its possible to take tests such as The Synesthesia Battery that gauge the extent to which one makes associations between senses. The colorful world of synesthesia - Science News Explores (one, two, neither) ? If the was colored orange and the s were colored green, the search task would be trivially easy because the orange digit visually pops out from the background of green digits. What could be done to improve this situation? is that "60 different forms of synesthesia have been documented and one could easily assume that each type of synesthesia is caused by a unique gene or set of genes" (Brang & Ramachandran, 2011, p. 2). document.getElementById( "ak_js_3" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); JSTOR Daily provides context for current events using scholarship found in JSTOR, a digital library of academic journals, books, and other material. In fact, Nabokov who was fluent in several languages reported experiencing the same letters in different colors and textures, depending on the language that he was using at any one time. Many synesthetes, however, have more than one type of synesthesia. We take a look at neuroscientific studies that may explain spiritual. In her case, however, it comes with some unique twists. Create your free account or Sign in to continue. JSTOR is part of ITHAKA, a not-for-profit organization helping the academic community use digital technologies to preserve the scholarly record and to advance research and teaching in sustainable ways. - ON AVERAGE: as we age we become less outgoing, less emotional and anxious, and less creative In the video, Dr. Weber states that most drug-related public service announcements (PSAs) have two main goals. A paper that was published in the journal Nature Scientific Reports in 2014 by researchers from the University of Brighton in the U.K. proposes that early learning may be key in the development and continuity of synesthetic experiences. Review of Previous Research Understanding Synesthesia Baron-Cohen and Harrison (1997) created a context for understanding synesthesia. Synesthesia is a phenomenon that is largely a gift to those who experience it, as many synesthetes have an aptitude for the arts, a strong sense of creativity, and increased memory skills. In Dr. Weber's research, he found that ________ ________ displayed different patterns of activity in brain regions related to ________ while watching the PSAs. The accuracy rates of both judgments were greater than chance, but participants were better at judging sexual orientation. In 1987, a team led by Baron-Cohen found the first hard evidence that synesthetes' experiences are consistent across time. Tastes elicited a tactile sensation in the hands. 5+ years: cooperative play This is called ____ memory. What type of brain waveforms did Daisy display right before being awakened? Lillian is cramming for her Latin exam. -2 years: more complex emotions emerge such as guilt/shame, formed strong attachments to those close to him/her, 2-7 years, physical development includes improved small and large muscle control and coordination, emotional & social development includes full range of positive and negative emotions, 2 years: solitary play which is by themselves and they don't like sharing Does the legendary author J.K. Rowling have silver Saturdays and genders for numbers? And some researchers even speculate that the conditions which lead to synesthesia may be a window into how abstract thought developed from disparate senses. In Dr. Weber's research, he found that ________ ________ displayed different patterns of activity in brain regions related to ________ while watching the PSAs. The most commonly reported types of synesthesia, however, are color-graphemic, in which letters, numbers, or geometric shapes are linked to colors or patterns, and color-auditory synesthesia, in which various sounds immediately recall specific colors, shapes, or textures. Assume an income tax rate of 40%. 2023 Scientific American, a Division of Springer Nature America, Inc. She must memorize vocabulary lists for Chapters 3 through 7 in her textbook by tomorrow morning. Which of the following policies is most likely related to this damaging relationship? Daisy takes several minutes to respond to her roommate and then opens the refrigerator to find her keys. Synesthetes hear colors, feel sounds and taste shapes. Some say this is associated with greater connectivity in the brain. He shows embarrassment about the remarks he made while cooking the meal. Qxd=6,00021PxPy+9Pz+101M. So, what causes these intriguing perception cross-overs? There was at least one case of a colorblind individual whose retina could not receive color but who nevertheless perceived numbers as certain hues. For mirror touch synesthetes, the capacity to resonate with anothers injury or distress runs far beyond the norm. Natalia, who suffers from epilepsy, experiences a seizure in which she completely loses consciousness, stops breathing, and thrashes about uncontrollably. Answer originally posted on June 17, 2002. Pamela watches her cat Mr. Big swat his paw at the wall and calls out, "Crazy Big, what are you swatting at; nothing is there." In this form, an individual's perception of numbers and letters is associated with colours. The bonds were issued at 98. They should happen every single time one invokes one of the two senses, over a span of time, and be memorable experiences: Letters are associated with the same very specific shade of a color every time theyre read, and sounds always evoke the matching texture, even months later. Maybe they touch a rock and also experience it as an odor. For certain types of synesthesia, you can take the Synesthesia Battery, an online test, to help confirm. (PDF) Synesthesia: An introduction - ResearchGate Researchers do not always agree, and in fact, synesthesia may quite possibly arise via different mechanisms in different people. What does he spend most of his day doing? 2003-2023 Chegg Inc. All rights reserved. Michael Jawer on December 9, 2020 in Feeling Too Much. There are actually various different types of synesthesia, and people who have one type might often also experience another. Researchers have found forms of synesthesia that affect every sensory modality. 2 months they can raise head, vision increases to 12 feet. When she is having a bad day, she knows that a few bites of chocolate will always make her feel better. When one aspect of a PSA is unrealistic or fails to match their experience, high-risk individuals distrust the entire message. A biological determinant may be partially at work in certain cases of synesthesia, because the condition tends to run in families; moreover, nearly six times as many women as men report synesthesia. The 2 Most Psychologically Incisive Films of 2022, The Surprising Role of Empathy in Traumatic Bonding. The most commonly seen example of synesthesia is grapheme-color synesthesia, in which individual letters and numbers are associated with specific colors and sometimes colorful patterns. Graph the demand curve for good XXX. For example, a person with synesthesia might feel something rough brush . Learn about the phenomenon called synaesthesia through neurological research at the California Institute of Technology, https://www.britannica.com/science/synesthesia, National Library of Medicine - Synesthesia: an introduction, University of Washington - Neuroscience for Kids - Synesthesia. One possibility is that synesthesia might arise from some kind of anomalous cross-wiring between brain areas that are normally segregated in nonsynesthetic individuals. The stimulation of one sense causes an involuntary reaction in one or more of the other senses. After early adulthood (age 25), body begins a slow decline The estimated occurrence of synesthesia ranges from rarer than one in 20,000 to as prevalent as one in 200. Did You Know Anxiety Can Enhance Our Relationships? Researchers at Boston University in Massachusetts have suggested that around 1 in every 100,000 people to 1 in every 5,000 people have one or more forms of synesthesia. Tastes elicited a tactile sensation in the hands. When the synesthetic color matches the ink color, responses are fast. Lobbying is not their principal activity. An intensive, preconscious empathy is the default setting of certain autistic people, enabling them to "merge" into their surroundings. Synesthesia | Definition, Types, Examples, & Facts | Britannica Vilayanur Ramachandran and Edward M. Hubbard of the University of California at San Diego, have reported complementary findings supporting the perceptual reality of synesthetic colors. Synesthesia is experienced many different ways, further complicating study. Recent findings suggest that research on synesthesia offers a unique opportunity to study the neural basis of subjective experiences in healthy and pathological brains. - Peers become almost more important than parents Some wonder if people with synesthesia are just being metaphorical, as many people use metaphors that cross sensory modalities. Synesthesia is a genetically linked trait estimated to affect from 2 to 5 percent of the general population. Research has shown signs of a genetic component; there is some debate over whether everyone is born with some degree of synesthesia, or if its a special perception of the world that only some individuals share. O Visual stimuli elicited the sensation of a taste. In this form, an individuals perception of numbers and letters is associated with colours. At December 31, 2015, the book value of the building was$30 million and its tax basis was $20 million. More than 4% of people have some form of synesthesia, a neurological condition that causes senses to link and merge. Where you hear a melody, synesthetes might also see color. By his own account, Nabokov saw each letter in different colors, despite the fact that text was printed all-black on white paper. Jean Kim M.D. Have you ever wondered what happens in the brain when you believe in God? Thanks for reading Scientific American. predictable changes associated with increasing age, focuses on human development across the lifespan, 2 weeks, conception, cell division and uterine implantation, 2-8 weeks post conception, major organs are formed, look like aliens 14 days post conception, the rest of pregnancy, weeks 9-40, continued growth and development of all major organs, the newborn, birth - 2 weeks old, transition from womb to independent life, weak and dependent, can sense sound, smell, taste and touch, but vision is limited (nearsighted- can only see 12 inches from face) can't see all colors, sleep 16 hours a day, eat, sleep, poop repeat, 2 weeks to 2 years, most rapid growth of entire life is during the 1st year. Some studies have suggested, however, that there may be a complex genetic linkage between synesthesia, autism, and savantism. As described by researchers Vilayanur S. Ramachandram and Edward M. Hubbardin Scientific American Mind, synesthesias existence has been known since the late nineteenth century, but has received very little study. Psych exam 2 Flashcards | Quizlet Is exercise more effective than medication for depression and anxiety? Yes, some synesthesia experiences are more mild than others. Ada is almost 1 month old. Since synesthesia can involve any combination of the senses, there may be as many as 60 to 80 subtypes. The balance sheet shows growth in receivables, (Perhaps you see the letter A as pink, or maybe the smell of gasoline looks like a brown fog.) Have a correction or comment about this article? Most people experience their senses one at a time. Explanation: Synaesthesia can be defined as a neurological trait disorder that results in a joining or merging of senses that aren't normally connected ( e.g earing and visual organs). And people in both groups who learned a second language after they reached school age were much more likely to have synesthesia than those who learned two languages from an early age. b. Synesthesia is an anomalous blending of the senses in which the stimulation of one modality simultaneously produces sensation in a different modality. grapheme-colour) there is the specific cross-activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, inferior parietal . From either location, both ears respond equally. Michael Jawer on November 25, 2020 in Feeling Too Much. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. The neural mechanism by which synesthetic colors are automatically bound to alphanumeric characters remains a mystery. Researchers observing sleep patterns find that approximately 20% of college students suffer from a sleep disorder. Although many purported uses of hypnosis fail to be supported by reliable and valid research, the _______ has shown that hypnotic suggestion can lead to reorganization of cognitive processes. Natalia experienced which type of seizure? The most common form of synesthesia, researchers believe, is colored hearing: sounds, music or voices seen as colors. How does the PSA you just watched attempt to meet those goals? Prepare the appropriate journal entry to record Ameens 2016 income taxes. We publish articles grounded in peer-reviewed research and provide free access to that research for all of our readers. document.getElementById( "ak_js_2" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Synesthesia runs in families, so there may also be a hereditary component. boys: production of sperm cells around 14 years. After you roughly bump part of your bodysay your shin or your "funny bone"into something and experience pain as a result, you may help to decrease that sense of pain by rubbing the injured area. 16-23. children act in sex-typed ways during this stage, 7-11 years, physical development is when growth is slower, but continued improvement in strength and coordination, formal education begins, social development is when peers become very important, and most friendships are same sex, - Rapid physical growth and change Teaching with Reveal Digitals American Prison Newspapers Collection, synesthesia, and experiences their senses very differently, The Wildest Inventions in Scientific Research, Prisoners Like Us: German POW and Black American Solidarity, Planetary Health: Foundations and Key Concepts, American Immigrant Literature Gets an Update, About the American Prison Newspapers Collection, Submissions: American Prison Newspapers Collection. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Well to put it into simp. Understanding of sleep increased by the study of: brain waves, eye movements, chin muscle tension, heart rate, respiration rate, Lightest sleep, hypnagogic state, myoclonia (startle awake, feeling of falling) theta waves occur, Somewhat more deeply asleep (mid asleep) - Sleep spindles occur - K complex occur, Deep sleep, delta waves 20% slow wave deep sleep begins, heart and breathing slow and regular, Deepest sleep, delta waves reach nearly 100%, blood pressure & brain activity at lowest points in 24 hour period, Called active sleep, paradoxical sleep, or dream sleep (20-25% of a nights sleep), Intense brain activity, brain temperature rises rapidly, sexual excitement in both genders, epinephrine release leads to increase in blood pressure, heart rate respiration, Body appears to be calm, large muscles become paralyzed, eyes dart around, dreaming occurs in 80% of people, consolidation of learning and memory (all night studying doesn't help), perceptual or motor skills increase after 8-10 hours of sleep, always get at least 3 hours of sleep each night, sleep walking, occurs during partial arousal from stage 4 sleep, sleeptalking, occurs during any sleep stage, is more frequent among children, happens during partial arousal from stage 4 sleep, usually begins with piercing scream, are frightening dreams that occur during REM sleep, partially wake up during REM Sleep, unable to move or speak, characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and uncontrollable attacks of REM sleep (associated with sleep paralysis), periods during sleep when breathing stops, the individual must awaken briefly in order to breathe, difficulty falling or staying asleep, sleep that is light, rests or of poor quality, believed dreams satisfy unconscious sexual and aggressive desires and must be disguised, the content of a dream as recalled by the dreamer, the plot of the dream, dreams are an expression of ongoing concerns and can resolve or clarify current problems, relate images in dreams to things in your waking life, dreams are the brains attempt to make sense of the random brain activity during REM sleep, we construct a story around the brain activity, any substance that alters mood perception or thought, needing larger amounts of the substance to achieve the same subjective effect, physical responses to the removal of habitually used substance, a compulsive physical or psychological dependence on a substance that continues despite negative consequences, Speed up the central nervous system, low moderate levels are exciting , confident, and euphoric, high levels are anxious, jittery, and hyper, overdose are convulsions, heart failure, death, caffeine, meth, cocaine, nicotine, ritalin/adderall, ecstasy and Molly, slow down the central nervous system, low-moderate levels are calm, drowsy, reduced anxiety, and inhibitions, high levels are insensitivity to pain and other senses, and overdose are irregular heartbeat or death, derived from the poppy plant, mimics the body's endorphins, can reduce anxiety or cause euphoria, and are common pain killers like opium, heroine, methadone, morphine, oxycontin, heroine, hydrocondone, disrupt normal thought process, reactions can be pleasant or not, some produce visual hallucinations like LSD, mushrooms, PCP, and Molly can have hallucinogenic effects, basically give schizophrenia for a short period of time, does not fit neatly into any class of drugs, some stimulating effects like euphoria or relaxing affects, but could make sensations more intense, and too much can interfere with memory, coordination, concentration and reaction times, induced altered consciousness, state of deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility, can have analgesic effects (pain killing), induced altered consciousness, rooted in ancient eastern religions, state of alert relaxation, improves immune system, lowers BP and cholesterol, creates a general feeling of well being, organizing and interpreting the information, the smallest magnitude of a stimulus that can be detected (the weakest detectable stimulus), the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli, must have light to see, light is composed of waves that give us hue, brightness, and saturation, complexity of light (gives us pure versus paler colors), ROY G BIV, can only see red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet, blue has shorter wavelengths and red has longer wavelengths, protective coating on the surface of the eye, the colored part of the eye that regulates the amount of light that enters, the transparent portion of the eye that focuses light onto the retina, images fall here, sensory receptor cells are here, receptor cells that code info about light and dark (located outside the center of the retina) 120 million cells in each eye, receptor cells that code info about color (located at the center of the retina) 6 million cells in each eye, the spot where the cones are concentrated (images focused directly onto the fovea are clearest because of the high concentration of cones), the nerve that carries visual neural messages to the brain (the area where the optic nerve attaches contains no rods or curves and therefore is a blind spot), the first level of color processing, there are 3 different kinds of cones in the eye and each respond to light in either red, blue, or green wavelengths therefore all sensation of color result from stimulating a combination of these 3 cones, yet doesn't explain red/green color blindness or color after images, second level of color processing, in addition to 3 types of cones (cone for red, blue, and green) there are "opponent process mechanisms" which respond to either the red green or the yellow-blue wavelengths, when we see something, whatever is the center of our attention is the figure, whatever is in the background is the ground (we can change our perception of the same image by switching the figure and the ground), 4 Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization, proximity, closure, similarity, continuation, things that are close together are grouped together in the mind as if they belong together, incomplete figures tend to be seen as complete because our brain fills in missing information, similar things are sense as being related, images are seen in ways that produce smooth continuation, the perception of objects remains unchanged, even when the sensation of the object is changing, we understand the brightness of an object does not change even when the object is dimly lit, we understand that colors do not change despite different conditions of light, cues in the environment that suggest depth and can be seen by only one eye, linear perspective parallel lines appear to come together as they go off into the distance (railroad tracks), eyes angle inward as an object gets closer to us, because each retina is a few inches apart, they have slightly different images and this helps with depth perception, pain messages are sent through two distinct pathways: rapid (first pain) and slow (second pain), there are neural gates (endorphins) that control the transmission of pain impulses that gate can open (slow pain messages are not blocked, therefore we experience pain) or closed (slow pain messages are blocked, and we do not experience pain), amputees often feel the amputated limb as if it is still there and sometimes feel pain in the missing limb, the neurons in charge of missing limb don't know that it is gone - but eyes see that the limb is gone - mismatch between eyes and neurons, Allows the eyes to see the missing limb as "working", stops mismatch between neurons and eyes, Atkinson-Shriffin proposed this model in 1968.